The first use of ether as an anesthetic in , Lister's revolutionary introduction surgical antisepsis in the 's, and breakthroughs in bacteriology by Pasteur and Koch in the 's all had their foundations in animal testing. But in addition to challenges to animal experimentation from a concerned and sometimes outraged general public, experimentalists experienced staunch opposition from certain pockets within the medical establishment itself.
Experimentalists faced professional competition from both anatomists fearing for the primacy of their field and advocates of improved sanitation as the preferred means of enhancing public health. According to commentators, many of Hall's papers were rejected by the Physiological Committee of the Royal Society because most members of the committee were anatomists who "developed their theories of ftmction from the spatial arrangement of organs and were anxious to preserve the supremacy of their own subject on medical education.
Finally, experimentalists faced opposition from those in the medical community who found animal research distasteful and instead offered to improve public health by providing a cleaner water supply and greater sanitation. In the end, the experimentalists prevailed. Despite the resentment of many physicians of the experimental methods, and of the opinion of many that they were distasteful, most doctors defended animal research when their profession came under fire from the antivivisection movement.
The emergence of animal experimentation with regard to drug testing and pharmacology parallels that in the medical field outlined above. The use of toxic substances as medicines therefore predates the lives of two French pioneers of experimental pharmacology, Francois Magendie and Claude Bernard Both employed animal tests to investigate the physiological effects of poisonous substances. Magendie's student. Occasionally uneasiness burst into open hostility.
Most doctors understood clinical investigation and comparative anatomy but, if trained before the 's, knew little of the new scientific medicine and its experimental methods. Not surprisingly, they often resented it, not least because of the contemptuously superior bearing that medical scientists too often seemed to adopt toward their less up to date colleagues.
Bernard continued his physiological tests on animals despite his wife's activism in the French vivisection movement. Commentators of the age credited Magendie with bringing pharmacology. Professor Fraser pronounced in an address delivered at the International Medical.
The introduction of this method is due to Bichat, and, by its subsequent application by Magendie, pharmacology was originated as the science we now recognize. Bichate represents a transition state, in which metaphysical conceptions were mingled with the results of experience. Magendie more clearly recognized the danger of adopting theories, in the existing imperfections of knowledge; and devoted himself to the supplementing of these imperfections by experiments on living animalsY Magendie's approach must have taken hold, as an text espousing the.
The use of atropin to check the flow of saliva was thus learnt, and great relief can now be given to a most distressing feature in some cases of paralysis and fracture of the skull. The manner in which belladonna acts as a poison has been shown by experiments; and so also has it been proved. The stimulating effects of strychnia upon the spinal chord were made out by Magandie's experiments; by the same means it was tested for practice, and established as a valuable nerve tonic; and by the same means also, Professor Haughton introduced nicotin as its antidote A final use of animal experimentation that bears mentioning here is in the development of an antidote for snake venom.
In alone, 20, royal subjects were killed in India as a result of snake bite. Sewall showed in that animals could be rendered immune, by repeated inoculation with minute quantities of rattlesnake-venom, to a dose seven times as large as would kill an unprotected animal. While pharmaceutical advances resulting from animal testing saved many patients, the shift from human to animal testing also saved many experimenters.
An article in the British Medical Journal catalogued the victims of such self-experimentation:. Angelo Knorr, Privat-docent in the Veterinary School of Munich, died on February 22nd from acute glanders, contracted in the course of an experimental research on mallein.
Helmann, the Russian investigator who discovered mallein, himself fell a victim to accidental inoculation of the glanders virus. Some time afterwards, another Russian, Protopopow, died of glanders contracted in a French laboratory. An Austrian physician,. Sons at As revealed by the title and purported author, this is quite clearly a propaganda piece.
None-theless it is indicative of the trends in animal testing at the time. Koffman-Wellendorf, died of the same disease, contracted in the Institute of Hygiene at Vienna. On January 17th of the present year Dr. Guiseeppe Bosso, of the University of Turin, died of infection contracted in the course of cultivations of tubercle-bacilli made in his laboratory. Not long before, Dr. Lola, assistant to the maternity department at the Czech University Hospital of Prague, died of tetanus caused by an experimental inoculation made on himself.
Some fourteen or fifteen years ago, a medical student of Lima proved that 'Verruga Peruana' is an infectious disease by inoculating himself with it, an act of scientific devotion which cost him his life. Besides those who have died, there are many who have only escaped with their lives after long and painful illness. Professor Kouloff contracted anthrax in a laboratory at Munich, and was saved only by vigorous surgery.
Nicolas supplied, in his own person, the first example of tetanus produced in man by inoculation of the pure toxin of the bacillus of Nicolaier. Thus, its spectacular advances, medical experimentation in the nineteenth century was a dangerous business.
The previous two sections, the antivivisection movement notwithstanding, conjure up an image of men in white coats working diligently in laboratories for. In the path to the current state of animal toxicity testing there is, however, a darker side.
A significant parallel motivation for the development of toxicology was the detection of poisons and poisonings. Between the fourteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ability of certain individuals to concoct and surreptitiously administer poisons far outstripped the ability of would-be victims to detect them and to differentiate between deaths caused by poisoning and those brought about by natural causes.
This imbalance allowed the depraved and the mercenary poisoners to strike fear in the hearts of important figures and common folk alike, as royalty and entire families could be wiped out without leaving behind identifiable marks of foul play.
Death by poisoning was indeed the primary means of assassination, as Blyth pointed out in his late-nineteenth century treatise:. The numerous attempts of the Italian and Venetian poisoners on the lives of monarchs and eminent persons, cast for a long time a cloud over regal domestic peace. Bullets and daggers were not feared, but in their place the dish of meat, the savoury pastry, and the red wine were regarded as possible carriers of death.
While contract and self-motivated poisonings were undertaken throughout Europe, the history of the Venetian poisoners is especially poignant because it represents not merely the depravity of individuals, but of a government formally sanctioning, through routine deliberations, the removal by poison of any number of public figures whom it found disagreeable.
One example here will suffice. On the 15th of December, , a Franciscan brother, John of Ragubo, offered a selection of poisons, and declared himself ready to remove any objectionable person out of the way. For the first successful case he required a pension of ducats yearly, which was to be increased on the execution of future services.
The presidents, Girolando Duoda and Pietro Guiarini, placed the matter before the "ten" on the 4th of January, , and on a division 10 against 5 it was resolved to accept so patriotic an offer, and to experiment first on Emperor Maximillian.
The bond laid before the "ten" contained a regular tariff - for the great Sultan, ducats, for the King of Spain ducats, but the journey and other expenses were in each case to be defrayed; the Duke of Milan was rated at 60, the Marquis of Mantua at 50, the pope could be removed at ducats.. The council appear to have quietly arranged thus to take away the lives of many public men, but their efforts were only in a few cases successful.
When the deed was done, it was registered by a single marginal note, "fact urn. This was indeed no laughing matter. The iniquitous Toffana, the Italian record holder, is believed to have poisoned upwards of people, including two popes - Pius III. She was brought to justice in but escaped punishment by taking refuge in a convent, which conferred immunity, and where she continued to sell poisonous concoctions to visitors for the next.
The foregoing should provide ample motivation for the development of a field of toxicology quite apart from medical and pharmacological research. It passed into UK law on 1st January Animal Research in Medicine: Years of Politics, Protests and Progress John Illman provides a history of animal research legislation and the context in which they were developed. The Story of the Research Defence Society. London: Research Defence Society. It was found to have an inhibitory effect on morning sickness, and hence, thousands of pregnant women took the drug to relieve their symptoms.
The drug was withdrawn in and after a long campaign. The above-mentioned incidents and others illustrate the harm to humans from the use of substances that have not been first tested on animals and underline the importance of animal experimentation to avert or prevent human tragedy. The practice of using animals in biomedical research has led to significant advances in the treatment of various diseases.
This has led to the 3Rs campaign, which advocates the search 1 for the replacement of animals with non-living models; 2 reduction in the use of animals; and 3 refinement of animal use practices.
However, total elimination of animal testing will significantly set back the development of essential medical devices, medicines, and treatment. By employing the 3Rs when continuing to use animals for scientific research, the scientific community can affirm its moral conscience as well as uphold its obligation to humanity to further the advancement of science for civilization and humanity.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Heart Views v. History of Animal Testing — ProCon. Henrique Franco, «Animal experiments in biomedical research: A historical perspective», Animals, vol. History of animal experimentation and animal rights by Beonchip Jun 8, Animal-free testig.
Bibliography 1. Water is stored both within and outside the cells, constituting what is known as intracellular and extracellular fluids.
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